The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs who introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and who ruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt. Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of the British-backed monarchy in 1952. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The government has struggled to meet the demands of Egypt's growing population through economic reform and massive investment in communications and physical infrastructure. Egyptian youth and opposition groups, inspired by events in Tunisia leading to overthrow of the government there, organized a "Day of Rage" campaign on 25 January 2011 (Police Day) to include non-violent demonstrations, marches, and labor strikes in Cairo and other cities throughout Egypt. Protester grievances focused on police brutality, state emergency laws, lack of free speech and elections, high unemployment, rising food prices, inflation, and low minimum wages. Within several days of the onset of protests, President MUBARAK addressed the nation pledging the formation of a new government, and in a second address he offered additional concessions, which failed to assuage protesters and resulted in an escalation of the number and intensity of demonstrations and clashes with police. On 11 February MUBARAK resigned and national leadership was assumed by a Supreme Council of Armed Forces (SCAF). The SCAF dissolved the Egyptian parliament, suspended the nation's constitution, and formed a committee to recommend constitutional changes to facilitate a political transition through democratic elections. Following some delays, elections for a new parliament took place between November 2011 and January 2012; however the lower house of parliament was dissolved after a court ruling deemed its formation illegal in June. Presidential elections held in May and June witnessed the victory of Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohammed MURSI over former Prime Minister Ahmed SHAFIQ. A draft constitution was approved in a December 2012 referendum, and legislative elections to form a new lower house of parliament are expected in early 2013.

Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip, and the Red Sea north of Sudan, and includes the Asian Sinai Peninsula

slightly more than three times the size of New Mexico

desert; hot, dry summers with moderate winters

vast desert plateau interrupted by Nile valley and delta

petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, rare earth elements, zinc

periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes; flash floods; landslides; hot, driving windstorms called khamsin occur in spring; dust storms; sandstorms

agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salination below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reefs, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; limited natural freshwater resources away from the Nile, which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining the Nile and natural resources

controls Sinai Peninsula, only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls Suez Canal, a sea link between Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea; size, and juxtaposition to Israel, establish its major role in Middle Eastern geopolitics; dependence on upstream neighbors; dominance of Nile basin issues; prone to influxes of refugees from Sudan and the Palestinian territories

Egyptian 99.6%, other 0.4% (2006 census)

Arabic (official), English and French widely understood by educated classes

Muslim (mostly Sunni) 90%, Coptic 9%, other Christian 1%

83,688,164 (July 2012 est.)

24.22 births/1,000 population (2012 est.)

4.8 deaths/1,000 population (July 2012 est.)

-0.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2012 est.)

CAIRO (capital) 10.902 million; Alexandria 4.387 million (2009)

66 deaths/100,000 live births (2010)

2.94 children born/woman (2012 est.)

2.83 physicians/1,000 population (2009)

1.7 beds/1,000 population (2009)

urban: 97% of population

rural: 92% of population

total: 94% of population

urban: 3% of population

rural: 8% of population

total: 6% of population

less than 0.1% (2009 est.)

fewer than 500 (2009 est.)

27 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazat); Ad Daqahliyah, Al Bahr al Ahmar (Red Sea), Al Buhayrah, Al Fayyum, Al Gharbiyah, Al Iskandariyah (Alexandria), Al Isma'iliyah (Ismailia), Al Jizah (Giza), Al Minufiyah, Al Minya, Al Qahirah (Cairo), Al Qalyubiyah, Al Uqsur (Luxor), Al Wadi al Jadid (New Valley), As Suways (Suez), Ash Sharqiyah, Aswan, Asyut, Bani Suwayf, Bur Sa'id (Port Said), Dumyat (Damietta), Janub Sina' (South Sinai), Kafr ash Shaykh, Matruh, Qina, Shamal Sina' (North Sinai), Suhaj

28 February 1922 (from UK protectorate status; the revolution that began on 23 July 1952 led to a republic being declared on 18 June 1953 and all British troops withdrawn on 18 June 1956); note - it was ca. 3200 B.C. that the Two Lands of Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt were first united politically

Revolution Day, 23 July (1952)

new constitution passed by referendum 22 December 2012

mixed legal system based on Napoleonic civil law and Islamic religious law; judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions)

accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; non-party state to the ICCt

18 years of age; universal and compulsory

bicameral parliament consists of the Shura Council or Majlis al-Shura that traditionally functions mostly in a consultative role (at least 150 seats with up to one-tenth of body appointed by the president; members serve six-year terms)and the House of Representatives (at least 350 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)

Court of Cassation (final court of appeal in civil and criminal cases); State Council (head of court system administration); Supreme Constitutional Court (jurisdiction limited to constitutionality of laws)

Al-Wasat Party; Constitution Pary [Mohammed ELBARADEI]; Democratic Peace Party; Egyptian Citizen Party; Freedom Party; Nation Party [Hazem Abu ISMAIL]; National Party of Egypt; New Wafd Party; People's Party; Popular Current Party [Hamdin SABAHI]; Reform and Development Party; Strong Egypt Party [Abdel Aboul FOTOUH]

ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AMF, AU, BSEC (observer), CAEU, CD, CICA, COMESA, D-8, EBRD, FAO, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, MINURSO, MONUSCO, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OIC, OIF, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNISFA, UNMIL, UNMISS, UNOCI, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO

three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the national emblem (a gold Eagle of Saladin facing the hoist side with a shield superimposed on its chest above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white)

Occupying the northeast corner of the African continent, Egypt is bisected by the highly fertile Nile valley, where most economic activity takes place. Egypt's economy was highly centralized during the rule of former President Gamal Abdel NASSER but opened up considerably under former Presidents Anwar EL-SADAT and Mohamed Hosni MUBARAK. Cairo from 2004 to 2008 aggressively pursued economic reforms to attract foreign investment and facilitate GDP growth. Despite the relatively high levels of economic growth in recent years, living conditions for the average Egyptian remained poor and contributed to public discontent. After unrest erupted in January 2011, the Egyptian Government backtracked on economic reforms, drastically increasing social spending to address public dissatisfaction, but political uncertainty at the same time caused economic growth to slow significantly, reducing the government's revenues. Tourism, manufacturing, and construction were among the hardest hit sectors of the Egyptian economy, and economic growth is likely to remain slow during the next several years. The government drew down foreign exchange reserves by more than 50% in 2011 and 2012 to support the Egyptian pound and the dearth of foreign financial assistance - as a result of unsuccessful negotiations with the International Monetary Fund over a multi-billion dollar loan agreement which have dragged on more than 20 months - could precipitate fiscal and balance of payments crises in 2013.

$537.8 billion (2012 est.)

$527.4 billion (2011 est.)

$518.2 billion (2010 est.)

$255 billion (2012 est.)

27.24 million (2012 est.)

13.5% of GDP (2012 est.)

22.2% of GDP (2012 est.)

-10.4% of GDP (2012 est.)

85% of GDP (2012 est.)

83.6% of GDP (2011 est.)

8.68% (31 December 2010 est.)

8.5% (31 December 2009 est.)

12.5% (31 December 2012 est.)

11.03% (31 December 2011 est.)

$47.73 billion (31 December 2012 est.)

$42.25 billion (31 December 2011 est.)

$192.5 billion (31 December 2012 est.)

$171.7 billion (31 December 2011 est.)

$178.4 billion (31 December 2012 est.)

$169.1 billion (31 December 2011 est.)

$48.68 billion (31 December 2011)

$82.49 billion (31 December 2010)

$89.95 billion (31 December 2009)

cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats

-$8.417 billion (2012 est.)

-$6.521 billion (2011 est.)

$28.37 billion (2012 est.)

$27.91 billion (2011 est.)

crude oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals, processed food

Italy 8.7%, India 7.3%, Saudi Arabia 6.1%, US 5.2%, Turkey 4.9%, Spain 4.2%, France 4.2% (2011)

$58.76 billion (2012 est.)

$55.07 billion (2011 est.)

machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, wood products, fuels

US 10.7%, China 9.1%, Germany 6.3%, Italy 5.1%, Kuwait 4.7%, Turkey 4.4%, Saudi Arabia 4.3% (2011)

$15.26 billion (31 December 2012 est.)

$17.66 billion (31 December 2011 est.)

$34.88 billion (31 December 2012 est.)

$33.75 billion (31 December 2011 est.)

$73.81 billion (31 December 2012 est.)

$72.61 billion (31 December 2011 est.)

$6.824 billion (31 December 2012 est.)

$6.074 billion (31 December 2011 est.)

Egyptian pounds (EGP) per US dollar -

136.6 billion kWh (2010 est.)

115.8 billion kWh (2009 est.)

1.118 billion kWh (2009 est.)

183 million kWh (2009 est.)

24.67 million kW (2009 est.)

86.9% of total installed capacity (2009 est.)

0% of total installed capacity (2009 est.)

11.4% of total installed capacity (2009 est.)

1.7% of total installed capacity (2009 est.)

711,500 bbl/day (2011 est.)

86,720 bbl/day (2009 est.)

48,590 bbl/day (2009 est.)

4.45 billion bbl (1 January 2013 est.)

628,100 bbl/day (2008 est.)

816,300 bbl/day (2011 est.)

91,680 bbl/day (2008 est.)

114,600 bbl/day (2008 est.)

61.33 billion cu m (2010 est.)

46.16 billion cu m (2010 est.)

15.17 billion cu m (2010 est.)

2.186 trillion cu m (1 January 2012 est.)

196.5 million Mt (2010 est.)

8.714 million (2011)

83.425 million (2011)

mix of state-run and private broadcast media; state-run TV operates 2 national and 6 regional terrestrial networks as well as a few satellite channels; about 20 private satellite channels and a large number of Arabic satellite channels are available via subscription; state-run radio operates about 70 stations belonging to 8 networks; 2 privately-owned radio stations operational (2008)

20.136 million (2009)

condensate 320 km; condensate/gas 13 km; gas 6,628 km; liquid petroleum gas 956 km; oil 4,332 km; oil/gas/water 3 km; refined products 895 km; water 13 km (2010)

3,500 km (includes the Nile River, Lake Nasser, Alexandria-Cairo Waterway, and numerous smaller canals in Nile Delta; the Suez Canal (193.5 km including approaches) is navigable by oceangoing vessels drawing up to 17.68 m) (2011)

Ayn Sukhnah, Alexandria, Damietta, El Dekheila, Port Said, Sidi Kurayr, Suez

Army, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Command

18-30 years of age for male conscript military service; service obligation - 18-36 months, followed by a 9-year reserve obligation; voluntary enlistment possible from age 16 (2012)

3.4% of GDP (2005 est.)

Sudan claims but Egypt de facto administers security and economic development of Halaib region north of the 22nd parallel boundary; Egypt no longer shows its administration of the Bir Tawil trapezoid in Sudan on its maps; Gazan breaches in the security wall with Egypt in January 2008 highlight difficulties in monitoring the Sinai border; Saudi Arabia claims Egyptian-administered islands of Tiran and Sanafir

transit point for cannabis, heroin, and opium moving to Europe, Israel, and North Africa; transit stop for Nigerian drug couriers; concern as money laundering site due to lax enforcement of financial regulations